Ng Yi-Sheng Ng Yi-Sheng

Crazy Colonisers: A Bibliography

Thanks so much for reading Crazy Colonisers, all about the British colonisation of Singapore! Below you’ll find a list of resources, references and notes, just in case you want to learn more about this subject, or if you want to double-check the claims I made in my book.

Further Reading

I thoroughly recommend Hikayat Abdullah, an 1849 memoir by the Melaka-born clerk Munshi Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir, who claimed to have been a Malay language teacher of Raffles (this was never independently confirmed). His anecdotal reports of early 19th century Singapore make for truly delightful reading. I used the following edition:

  • Abdullah Abdul Kadir, Munshi. The Hikayat Abdullah: The Autobiography of Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir, 1797-1854. Translated by A.H. Hill. Oxford University Press, 1985.

 Among the many published works on Sir Stamford Raffles, the most recent and most comprehensive biography is the following:

  •  Glendinning, Victoria. Raffles and the Golden Opportunity. Profile Books, 2018.

 But if you’d like a more critical approach to him and his legacy, however, I also recommend:

  •  Alatas, Syed Hussein. Thomas Stamford Raffles: Schemer or Reformer? Angus and Robertson, 1971.

  • Hannigan, Tim. Raffles and the British Invasion of Java. Monsoon Books, 2012.

  • Humphreys, Neil. Why Our Great Leader Was Not So Great and Not Much of a Leader. Ethos Books, 2020.

  • Murphy, Stephen A., Naomi Wang and Alexandra Green (eds). Raffles in Southeast Asia: Revisiting the Scholar and Statesman. Asian Civilisations Museum, 2019.

  • Ng Yi-Sheng. “Raffles Displaced.” BiblioAsia. 1 January 2021. https://biblioasia.nlb.gov.sg/all-sections/vol-16-issue-4-jan-mar-2021-raffles-displaced/

 For information on William Farquhar, check out:

  •  Wright, Nadia. William Farquhar and Singapore: Stepping Out from Raffles’ Shadow. Entrepot Publishing, 2017.

Sadly, I’ve yet to discover a really accessible work about the early 19th century political turmoil in the Johor-Riau Sultanate. The best I can suggest for now is the following work in Bahasa Indonesia, which I only discovered after I’d done all the principal research for this project:

  •  Hasan Junus. Engku Puteri Raja Hamidah. Uni Press Kerjasama Pemerintah Kota Tanjungpinang, 2002.

As well as an iconic work about how the Johor Sultanate developed in the aftermath of colonisation:

  • Trocki, Carl A. Prince of Pirates: The Temenggongs and the Development of Johor and Singapore, 1784-1885. NUS Press, 2007.

For a broader take on the decolonisation movement in Singapore, have a look at:

  • Alfian Sa’at, Faris Joraimi and Sai Siew Min (eds.) Raffles Renounced: Towards a Merdeka History. Ethos Books, 2021.

Sources

The Johor-Riau Sultanate (1700s–1800s)

The British trader Alexander Hamilton—who bears no relation to the American founding father of the same name—declined to create a settlement in Singapore in 1703, not because he thought it was a bad place for a port, but because he felt he couldn’t build it up as an individual; this was a task more suited to a company, like the East India Company.

My main sources on Engku Puteri Raja Hamidah’s life were:

  •  Andaya, Barbara Watson. “Gender, Islam and the Bugis Diaspora in Nineteenth-and Twentieth-Century Riau.” Sari 21 (2003), pp. 77-108.

  • Begbie, P. J. The Malayan Peninsula. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1967.

The shocking detail about her father Raja Haji Fisabilillah being buried on a pig farm is from:

  • Abdullah Abdul Kadir, Munshi. The Hikayat Abdullah: The Autobiography of Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir, 1797-1854. Translated by A.H. Hill. Oxford University Press, 1985. p60.

Different sources give the date of her marriage as 1803 or 1804. I have opted to go with 1803, as cited here:

  • Swastiwi, Anastasia Wiwik.“ Penyengat Island Riau Island: Towards A World Heritage.” International Journal of Environmental Sustainability and Social Science, 3 (1), 2022, pp. 116-129.

Her brother Raja Jaafar’s birthdate had to be pinpointed using the following two sources:

  • Hasan Junus. Raja Haji Fisabilillah: Hannibal dari Riau. Hubungan Masyarakat Pemerintah Daerah Kepulauan Riau, 2000, p108.

  • Matheson Hooker, Virginia (trans). The Precious Gift. Institut Terjemahan & Buku Malaysia, 2012.

His death date appears in:

  • Matheson Virginia. Pulau Penyengat: Nineteenth Century Islamic Centre of Riau. In: Archipel, volume 37, 1989. Villes d'Insulinde (II) pp. 153-172.

I’ve chosen not to elaborate on the ethnic side of the rival factions within the Johor-Riau court. Engku Puteri and her family were associated with the Bugis faction who had immigrated generations ago from Sulawesi, while the Sultan himself was more affiliated with the Malay faction. The fact that these factions frequently intermarried and regularly made, then broke, alliances, means that their dynamics are a little too confusing to summarise in a book for kids.

The British Empire (1700s–1800s)

A note on the illustrations. It’s a little misleading to have George III to be the face of the British Empire in Asia, because at this time, the East India Company was a private corporation that wasn’t under the control of the government. Still, he’s a little more iconic than the actual Directors of the East India Company!

Much of the background information on the British Empire is common knowledge, but here are a couple of great primers:

  • Anand, Anita & William Dalrymple. Empire: World History [podcast]. Goalhanger Podcasts. 2022-now.

  • Dalrymple, William. The Anarchy: The Relentless Rise of the East India Company. Bloomsburg Publishing, 2019.

Information on Farquhar comes from:

  • Wright, Nadia. William Farquhar and Singapore: Stepping Out from Raffles’ Shadow. Entrepot Publishing, 2017.

Raffles Rises (1781–1818)

  • Glendinning, Victoria. Raffles and the Golden Opportunity. Profile Books, 2018.

  • Hannigan, Tim. Raffles and the British Invasion of Java. Monsoon Books, 2012.

Hannigan also talks about the Banjarmasin Affair, which implicates Raffles in the kidnapping of women for Alexander Hare’s colony in Banjarmasin, Borneo. For reasons of space and sensitivity, I chose not to write about this issue.

For information on the Palembang Massacre, I also drew from:

  • Alatas, Syed Hussein. Thomas Stamford Raffles: Schemer or Reformer? Angus and Robertson, 1971.

  • Bastin, John. “Palembang in 1811 and 1812. (Part 1).” Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, 1953, Deel 109, 4de Afl. (1953), pp. 300-320.

  • Bastin, John. “Palembang in 1811 and 1812. (Part 2).” Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, 1954, Deel 110, 1ste Afl. (1954), pp. 64-88.

For information on Dick from Papua, I drew from:

Picking a Port

  • Abdullah. The Hikayat Abdullah.

  • Trocki, Carl A. Prince of Pirates: The Temenggongs and the Development of Johor and Singapore, 1784-1885. NUS Press, 2007.

The Colonisation of Singapore

  • Abdullah. The Hikayat Abdullah.

  • Begbie, P. J. The Malayan Peninsula. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1967.

Conversion from Spanish dollars in 1819 to Singapore dollars in 2026 was estimated using two resources:

The folktale about the cow skin was shared by my friend, the artist Ezzam Rahman, in the context of the following artwork:

Singapore Under Farquhar (1819–1823)

  • Abdullah. The Hikayat Abdullah.

  • Wright. William Farquhar and Singapore.

The story of the British offering Engku Puteri $50,000 is not stated in contemporary British and Malay sources. The closest thing to a primary source I’ve discovered is the following Dutch source from the later 19th century, which is why I’ve included it as a rumour rather than a fact.

  • Netscher, Elisa. De Nederlanders in Djohor en Siak, 1602 tot 1865: historische beschrijving, Bruining & Wijt, 1870, p277.

My primary resource for Hajjah Fatimah was this article:

  • Liyana Sulaiman, Siti Hajar Zainal and Farhanah Mohamad Saad. “Malay Pioneer Series: 2.2 Ahead of her time: Hajjah Fatimah Binti Sulaiman ‘Al-Bugisi’ (d.1852).” The Malay Heritage Foundation.https://mhf.org.sg/malay-pioneer-series-5/

Raffles vs. Farquhar

  • Glendinning, Victoria. Raffles and the Golden Opportunity. Profile Books, 2018.

  • Raffles, Lady Sophia. Memoir of the Life and Public Services of Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles. Oxford in Asia, 1991, p. 452.

  • Raffles, Sir Stamford.  XVII. Descriptive catalogue of a zoological collection, made on account of the Honourable East India Company, in the island of Sumatra and its vicinity. 1822, p254-5.

  • Wright. William Farquhar and Singapore.

A report on the rumours that Raffles had a Chinese wife are summarised here:

The Crimes of Syed Yasin

Singapore Under Crawfurd

It should be noted that Engku Puteri’s attempt to go to Singapore in 1820 was caused by a desire to flee violence in Bintan arising between a conflict between the Bugis and the Dutch. There is no indication that she was bringing Hussein the cogan.

Information on the tomb of Abdul Rahman II, the last Sultan of Riau-Lingga, can be found here:

Strange Tales of Old Singapore

  • Abdullah. The Hikayat Abdullah.

  • Muhammad Ghouse Khan Surattee & the Outreach Unit of Al'Firdaus Mosque, The Grand Saint of Singapore: The Life of Habib Nuh bin Muhammad A-Habshi. Masjid al’Firdaus, 2008.

Raffles Falls... and Rises Again

Extra Facts: More Crazy Colonisers

I’ve gotta be honest: these writeups were so short I used mostly Wikipedia for this research. However, I should mention that the Francis Light information mostly came from:

  • Nedumaran, N. The Forgotten Sentinels: the Sepoys of Malaya, Singapore & South-east Asia (the founding years: 18th to early 20th centuries), 2017.

What Happened to Everyone Else?

  • Gibson, A Complete Catalog of Keramat in Singapore.

  • Muhammad et al, The Grand Saint of Singapore.

  • Jones, Al Semananti. “Engku Puteri Raja Hamidah: Permaisuri Melayu Berjiwa Srikandi.” The Patriots. 25 May 2017. https://thepatriots.asia/engku-puteri-raja-hamidah-permaisuhri-melayu-berjiwa-srikandi/

  • Liyana et al. “Malay Pioneer Series: 2.2.”

  • Trocki, Prince of Pirates.

  • Wee, “John Crawfurd.”

  • Wright. William Farquhar and Singapore.

An example of Crawfurd’s racist essays on Africans, as well as a commentary on his views on Asians, can be found below:

A recent report on the descendants of Sultan Hussein, including his patrilineal heir Tengku Shawal Tengku Aziz, can be found here:

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Ng Yi-Sheng Ng Yi-Sheng

Twisted Temasek: A Bibliography

If you’re reading this, there’s a good chance you’ve read my book Twisted Temasek, all about the precolonial history of Singapore! Below, you’ll find suggestions for related books and films, as well as a compilation of sources for the chapters—just in case you think I made stuff up!

Further Reading  

By far the most important is Sulalatus Salatin, also called Sejarah Melayu. I’d say the best translation, is the following. Sadly, it’s out of print:  

·      Brown, C C. (translator). Sejarah Melayu or Malay Annals. Oxford University Press, 1970. (Based on the earliest surviving manuscript, Raffles MS no. 18.)

If you read Malay, the most commonly referenced edition is:

·      Sulalatus Salatin: Sejarah Melayu, edited by A Samad Ahmad. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, 1979. (Based on multiple manuscripts.)

If you can’t find those, acceptable substitutes are:

·      Leyden, John. Malay Annals. Silverfish Books, 2017. (Based on an unidentified manuscript.)

·      Tun Seri Lanang. The Genealogy of Kings (Sulalatus Salatin). Translated by Muhammad Haji Salleh. Penguin Random House SEA, 2020. (Based on Raffles MS no. 18.)

I’d also recommend the following books of history and legends:

·      Kwa Chong Guan and Borschberg, Peter (eds). Studying Singapore Before 1800. NUS Press, 2018.

·      Kwa Chong Guan, Derek Heng, Borschberg, Peter and Tan Tai Yong. Seven Hundred Years: A History of Singapore. Marshall Cavendish Editions, 2019.

·      Pires, Tomé. The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires. Asian Educational Services, 2005.

·      Pugalenthi Sr. Myths and Legends of Singapore. VJ Times, 2001. (The 1991 edition is wonderful, but it also contains original short stories mislabelled as legends!)

·      Winstedt, R. O. A History of Johore 1365-95. Silverfish Books, 2022.

Special thanks also to Firdaus Saini of Oranglaut.sg, who helped supply information on Orang Laut traditions and the alternative story of Hang Nadim’s execution. 

 

Further Watching

You might also enjoy these classic Singapore movies inspired by legends in this book. They’re all in Malay, so if you don’t speak the language, make sure you find a version with subtitles. 

·      Badang. Directed by S. Roomai Noor, Cathay-Keris, 1962.

·      Dang Anom. Directed by Hussain Haniff, Cathay-Keris, 1962.

·      Hang Tuah. Directed by Phani Majumdar, Shaw Brothers, 1956.

·      Raden Mas. Directed by L. Krishnan, Cathay-Keris, 1959. 

·      Singapura Dilanggar Todak (Singapore Attacked by Garfish). Directed by Omar Rojik, Shaw Brothers, 1961.

·      Sultan Mahmud Mangkat Dijulang (The Passing of Sultan Mahmud). Directed by K. M. Basker, Cathay Keris, 1961.

 

Sources

Who Was Here First? 

·      Hsü Yün-ts’iao. “Singapore in the Remote Past”. Studying Singapore Before 1800. Eds. Kwa Chong Guan and Peter Borschberg. NUS Press, 2018.

·      Foo Shu Tieng. “Singapore’s Stone Tools.” BiblioAsia, vol. 18, issue 4, Jan-Mar 2023. https://biblioasia.nlb.gov.sg/vol-18/issue-4/jan-mar-2023/stone-tools-singapore/

For more on prehistoric Southeast Asia, research the Tabon Caves of Palawan, the Philippines, and Lubang Jeriji Saléh of East Kalimantan, Indonesia.

The descriptions of islands which may be early Singapore are taken from Ptolemy’s Geographia and Du You’s Tong Dian.

The Chola Invasion (1025)

·      Brown, C C. (translator). Sejarah Melayu or Malay Annals. Oxford University Press, 1970.
·      Sinclair, Iain. “Traces of the Cholas in Old Singapura.” Sojourners to Settlers: Tamils in Southeast Asia. Eds. Arun Mahizhnan and Nalina Gopal. Indian Heritage Centre and Institute of Policy Studies, 2019, pp 50-51.

·      Zaccheus, Melody. “Singapore may be 1,000 years old, not just 700 as believed: Study.” The Straits Times, 22 December 2019. https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/spore-may-be-1000-years-old-not-just-700-as-believed-study

The Rise of Sang Nila Utama (1200s)

·      Brown. Sejarah Melayu.

For clarity on different versions of the story, see Heng, Derek. “Sang Nila Utama: Separating Myth From Reality.” BiblioAsia, vol. 16 Issue 2, Jul-Sep 2020. https://biblioasia.nlb.gov.sg/vol-16/issue-2/jul-sep-2020/sangnila/ 

The Founding of Singapore (1299)

·      Brown. Sejarah Melayu.

·      Chew, Ian. “Did Sang Nila Utama really see a lion?” The Kontinentalist, 5 February 2020. https://kontinentalist.com/stories/singapore-sang-nila-utama-legend.

 

Life in Early Singapore (early 1300s)

 The description of Singapore in Wang Dayuan’s Dao Yi Zhi Lüe is recounted in Lee Meiyu. “Tales of the Dragon’s Tooth Strait.” BiblioAsia, vol. 10, issue 3, Oct-Dec 2014. https://biblioasia.nlb.gov.sg/vol-10/issue-3/oct-dec-2014/dragons-tooth-strait/.

 Singapore’s population at this point is extremely uncertain. It’s 2,000, according to Kwa Chong Guan, Derek Heng, Peter Borschberg and Tan Tai Yong. Seven Hundred Years: A History of Singapore. Marshall Cavendish Editions, 2019, p. 41-42. However, John Miksic gives it as 5,000-10,000.

 Information on the Orang Laut is also indebted to Firdaus Saini of Oranglaut.sg.

 

War with the Javanese (1340s-50s)

·      Bade, David W. Of Palm Wine, Women and War: The Mongolian Naval Expedition to Java in the 13th Century. ISEAS-Yusof Ishak Institute, 2013.

 ·      Brown. Sejarah Melayu.

 ·      Gusti Putu Phalgunadi (translator). The Pararaton: A Study of the Southeast Asian Chronicle. Sundeep Prakashan, 1996.

 

Badang and the Hantu (1360s-70s)

·      Brown. Sejarah Melayu.

·      William L. Gibson. “Uncovering the Origins of Badang the Strongman.” BiblioAsia, vol. 21, issue 1, Apr-Jun 2025. https://biblioasia.nlb.gov.sg/vol-21/issue-1/apr-jun-2025/origins-badang-strongman-singapore-stone/

 The story of Saktimuna can be found in Leyden, John. Malay Annals. Silverfish Books, 2017. 

The story of the merlion’s connection to the makara can be found in Tan Zi Hao. “The Chimeric Trace: The Makara and Other Connections to Come.” Art in Translation, vol. 14, issue 3, 2022, pp 338-370.

The legend of the kirtimukha can be found in Zimmer, Heinrich. Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilisation. Harper Torchbooks, 1946, pp.175-76.

 

Hang Nadim and the Garfish Attack (1370s-80s)

 ·      Brown. Sejarah Melayu.

·      Gibson, William L. “Keramat Radin Mas (Mount Faber).” Complete Catalog of Keramat in Singapore. National Library Board, 2022, pp. 152-219. https://www.nlb.gov.sg/main/book-detail?cmsuuid=67da757c-ef09-4a4a-ae7a-05ca7afa8185

 The alternative ending to the story of Hang Nadim was supplied by Firdaus Saini of Oranglaut.sg.

 

The Fall of Singapore (1398)

·      Brown. Sejarah Melayu. The specific detail of the concubine’s impalement is in Leyden. Malay Annals.

 ·      Pires, Tomé. The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires, vol. 2. Asian Educational Services, 2005, p. 232.

 

Magnificent Melaka (1400-1511)

 ·      Albuquerque, Afonso de. The Commentaries of the Great Afonso Dalboquerque, Second Viceroy of India. Translated by Walter de Gray Birch. Hakluyt Society, 1875.

 ·      Brown. Sejarah Melayu.

 ·     The Epic of Hang Tuah. Translated by Muhammad Haji Salleh. Institut Terjemahan Negara Malaysia, 2010.

 The number of visits Zheng He made to Melaka is disputed. It’s stated as five on sites such as Shao Xinying. “Peace, partnership and prosperity: Zheng He's legacy remembered.” China Daily Global, 17 October 2023. http://epaper.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202310/17/WS652dd779a310d4219e3a9503.html. It’s also given as seven on sites such as O’Connell, Ryan. “Zheng He’s Malacca: temples, the biggest Chinese cemetery outside China, and museums dedicated to Ming dynasty admiral’s legacy in the Malaysian city.” South China Morning Post, 23 January 2023. https://www.scmp.com/lifestyle/travel-leisure/article/3207344/zheng-hes-malacca-temples-biggest-chinese-cemetery-outside-china-and-museums-dedicated-ming-dynasty

 

Here Come the Colonisers! (1500s-1600s)

 It’s debatable if the Dutch takeover of Jakarta in 1619 marks the beginning of the colonisation of Indonesia. The Portuguese had invaded earlier, building fortresses in Ternate in 1522 and Ambon in 1568. However, these didn’t expand into the same kind of land empire the way the Dutch did.

 ·      “The Santa Catarina Incident.” National Library Board Singapore. 2013. https://www.nlb.gov.sg/main/article-detail?cmsuuid=48d0a785-2b61-467a-8c85-f2728e33702c

 ·      Borschberg, Peter. “A Portuguese-Dutch Naval Battle in the Johor River Estuary and the Liberation of Johor Lama in 1603.” Studying Singapore Before 1800. Eds. Kwa Chong Guan and Peter Borschberg. NUS Press, 2018.

 ·      Borschberg, Peter. The Singapore and Melaka Straits: Violence, Security and Diplomacy in the 17th Century. NUS Press, 2010.

 ·      Macgregor, Ian A. “A Sea-Fight Near Singapore in the 1570s.” Studying Singapore Before 1800. Eds. Kwa Chong Guan and Peter Borschberg. NUS Press, 2018.

 

The Death of Sultan Mahmud (1699)

 ·      Ali al-Haji, Raja. The Precious Gift (Tuhfat al-Nafis), translated by Virginia Matheson Hooker. Oxford University Press, 1982.

 ·      Andaya, Barbara Watson and Andaya, Leonard Y. A History of Malaysia, 3rd edition. Palgrave, 2017.

 ·      Hamilton, Alexander. A New Account of the East Indies, Vol. 2. Asian Educational Services, 1995, pp. 95-97. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.39275/page/n11/mode/2up

 ·      Winstedt, R. O. A History of Johore 1365-95. Silverfish Books, 2022, pp. 81-83.

 

EXTRA FACTS: Insane Islands

Sentosa / Pulau Blakang Mati’s legend is cited in Bennett, George. Wanderings In New South Wales ,Vol.2. 1836. p136. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.45453/page/n147/mode/2up. Also in Zainal Jamari. “Asal usul nama pulau2 di selatan.” Berita Harian, 30 August 1981, p. 3. https://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/Digitised/Article/beritaharian19810830-1.2.21?ST 

St John’s Island / Pulau Sekijang’s legend is cited in Haughton, H.T. “Notes on names of places in the island of Singapore and its vicinity.” Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, no. 20, 1889, p. 79. https://www.mbras.org.my/file/Haughton1889.pdf

Pulau Ubin’s legend is cited in “Did a pig and a jumbo turn into Pulau Ubin?” The Straits Times, 9 December 1995, p. 11. https://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/Digitised/Article/straitstimes19951209-1.2.74.3.22 

Sisters’ Islands’ legend is cited in Pugalenthi Sr. Myths and Legends of Singapore. VJ Times, 1991. 

Kusu Island’s legend is cited in Pugalenthi Sr. Myths and Legends of Singapore. However, earlier source suggest that the story of the giant turtle saving sailors was originally separate from the story of the Chinese man and the Malay man being shipwrecked on the island. See Dowsett, F. “Discovering Singapore.” New Nation, 13 November 1971, p. 7.

Pulau Seking’s legend is cited in Cheow Sue Ann and Koh, Fabian. “Singapore Islands You May Not Have Heard of.” The Straits Times, 19 January 2016. https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/singapore-islands-you-may-not-have-heard-of. Further information is at Wee, Vivienne and Benjamin, Geoffrey. “Pulau Seking, the final link to pre-Raffles Singapore.” Academia.edu. https://www.academia.edu/5343730/Vivienne_Wee_and_Geoffrey_Benjamin_Pulau_Seking_the_final_link_to_pre_Raffles_Singapore. 

Pulau Hantu Besar and Pulau Hantu Kecil’s legend is cited in “Did a pig and a jumbo turn into Pulau Ubin?” The Straits Times, 9 December 1995, p. 11. https://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/Digitised/Article/straitstimes19951209-1.2.74.3.22 

Pulau Jong’s legend is cited in Victor R Savage, Brenda S A Yeoh, Toponymics - A Study of Singapore Street Names. Times Media Private Ltd, 2003, p. 312.

Keppel Island/Pulau Hantu’s legend is cited in Groom, Pelham. “How Pulau Hantu Got Its Name.” The Singapore Free Press, 23 August 1958, p. 5. https://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/digitised/page/freepress19580823-1.1.13.

 

Does Any of This Matter?

 ·     Abdullah, Munsyi. The Hikayat Abdullah. The Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 2009.

 ·     Kwa Chong Guan, “From Temasek to Singapore: Locating a Global City-State in the Cycles of Melaka Straits History”, Studying Singapore Before 1800.

 ·     Kwa Chong Guan, Derek Heng, Peter Borschberg and Tan Tai Yong. Seven Hundred Years: A History of Singapore.

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